1. Teach students how to model cognitive processes as well as behaviors using real-world problems. Jonassen (1998) defines two types of modeling: behavioral modeling of the overt performance and cognitive modeling of the covert cognitive processes. Behavioral modeling "demonstrates how to perform the activities" while cognitive modeling "articulates the reasoning that learners should use while engaged in performing the activity" (p. 12). Jonassen reasons that "conventional teaching focuses on answers, which are often artificially 'tidy,' lacking the complexity and messiness of the real world" (Fahy 1999, 54, citing Jonassen 1998). He suggests using "authentic problems" to make student learning experiences "more appealing, engaging, and meaningful."
   
   
2. Provide similar examples and comparisons to aid perception and recall. "Objects, ideas, or events displayed together in space and time are often stored together in memory and grouped together in recall. This is the Law of proximity in perception and contiguity in memory" (Fahy 1999, 60).
   
   
3. Use show me buttons. When learners need help, provide them with a "Show Me" or a "How Do I Do This?" button (Jonassen 1998, 12). Hyperlink to this button a visual or animated example of the desired performance.
   
   
4. Use worked examples as a method for modeling problem solving. "Worked examples include a description of how problems are solved by an experienced problem solver. Worked examples enhance the development of problem schemas and the recognition of different types of problems based on them" (Jonassen 1998, 12, citing Sweller & Cooper 1985).
   
   
5. Use repetition with variety. Repeating a variety of examples or problems with solutions is more effective for long-term retention than rote or verbatim reproduction. Paraphrasing, rephrasing, and reworking is more useful than the repetition or regurgitation of information (Fahy 1999, 62).

© 1999 by Peter J. Patsula